Water Centric Sustainable Communities

<p>PREFACE xii</p>
<p>I HISTORIC PARADIGMS OF URBAN WATERSTORMWATER WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT AND DRIVERS FOR CHANGE 1</p>
<p>I.1 Introduction 1</p>
<p>I.2 Historic Paradigms: From Ancient Cities to the 20th Century 5</p>
<p>I.2.1 First Paradigm 8</p>
<p>I.2.2 Second Paradigm 9</p>
<p>I.2.3 Third Paradigm 15</p>
<p>I.2.4 Fourth Paradigm 25</p>
<p>I.2.5 The Impact of Automobile Use 32</p>
<p>I.2.6 Urban Sprawl 38</p>
<p>I.2.7 The Rise of New Great Powers Competing for Resources 40</p>
<p>I.3 Drivers for Change towards Sustainability 42</p>
<p>I.3.1 Population Increases and Pressures 44</p>
<p>I.3.2 Water Scarcity Problems and Flooding Challenges of Large Cities 49</p>
<p>I.3.3 Greenhouse Emissions and Global Warming Effects 51</p>
<p>I.3.4 Aging Infrastructure and the Need to Rebuild and Retrofit 59</p>
<p>I.3.5 The Impossibility of Maintaining the Status Quo and Business as Usual 60</p>
<p>I.4 The 21st Century and Beyond 65</p>
<p>References 68</p>
<p>II URBAN SUSTAINABILITY CONCEPTS 72</p>
<p>II.1 The Vision of Sustainability 72</p>
<p>II.2 The Sustainability Concept and Definitions 73</p>
<p>II.2.1 A New (Fifth) Paradigm Is Needed 73</p>
<p>II.2.2 Definition of Pollution 76</p>
<p>II.2.3 Sustainability Definitions 80</p>
<p>II.2.4 Economic versus Resources Preservation Sustainability 82</p>
<p>II.2.5 Sustainability Components 85</p>
<p>II.2.6 The Environment and Ecology 87</p>
<p>II.2.7 Living within the Limits in the Urban Landscape 90</p>
<p>II.2.8 The Economy 94</p>
<p>II.3 Towards the Fifth Paradigm of Sustainability 97</p>
<p>II.3.1 Emerging Sustainable Urban Water Stormwater Used Water Systems 99</p>
<p>II.3.2 Triple Bottom Line Life Cycle Assessment (TBL LCA) 104</p>
<p>II.3.3 Water Reclamation and Reuse 106</p>
<p>II.3.4 Restoring Urban Streams 108</p>
<p>II.3.5 Stormwater Pollution and Flood Abatement 110</p>
<p>II.3.6 Urban Landscape 113</p>
<p>II.4 Cities of the Future Water Centric Ecocities 114</p>
<p>II.4.1 Drainage and Water Management 114</p>
<p>II.4.2 Microscale Measures and Macroscale Watershed Goals 116</p>
<p>II.4.3 Integrated Resource Management Clusters Ecoblocks of the Cities of the Future 120</p>
<p>II.4.4 Interconnectivity of Clusters Spatial Integration 123</p>
<p>II.5 Ecocity Ecovillage Concepts 124</p>
<p>References 129</p>
<p>III PLANNING AND DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE AND RESILIENT CITIES: THEORIES, STRATEGIES, AND BEST PRACTICES FOR GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE 135</p>
<p>III.1 Introduction 135</p>
<p>III.1.1 Achieving Sustainability 135</p>
<p>III.1.2 Sustainability through Urban Planning and Design 137</p>
<p>III.2 Ecosystem Services 138</p>
<p>III.2.1 Concepts 138</p>
<p>III.2.2 The Non–Equilibrium Paradigm 141</p>
<p>III.3 Planning for Resilient and Sustainable Cities 143</p>
<p>III.3.1 Ecosystem Service Goals and Assessments 143</p>
<p>III.3.2 Resilience Strategies 144</p>
<p>III.3.3 Scenario Planning 155</p>
<p>III.3.4 Transdisciplinary Process 157</p>
<p>III.3.5 Adaptive Planning 157</p>
<p>III.4 Best Practices for Green Infrastructure 158</p>
<p>III.4.1 SEA Street Seattle 159</p>
<p>III.4.2 Westergasfabriek Park, Amsterdam 162</p>
<p>III.4.3 Staten Island Blue Belt, New York 162</p>
<p>III.4.4 Ecostaden (Ecocities): Augustenborg Neighborhood and Western Harbor, Malm&uml;o, Sweden 164</p>
<p>III.5 Discussion 170</p>
<p>References 171</p>
<p>IV STORMWATER POLLUTION ABATEMENT AND FLOOD CONTROL STORMWATER AS A RESOURCE 177</p>
<p>IV.1 Urban Stormwater A Problem or an Asset? 177</p>
<p>IV.1.1 Problems with Urban Stormwater 177</p>
<p>IV.1.2 Current Urban Drainage 182</p>
<p>IV.1.3 Urban Stormwater Is an Asset and a Resource 184</p>
<p>IV.1.4 Low Impact Development (LID) 186</p>
<p>IV.2 Best Management Practices to Control Urban Runoff for Reuse 189</p>
<p>IV.2.1 Soft Surface Approaches 190</p>
<p>IV.2.2 Ponds and Wetlands 201</p>
<p>IV.2.3 Winter Limitations on Stormwater Management and Use 212</p>
<p>IV.2.4 Hard Infrastructure 216</p>
<p>IV.2.5 ID Urban Drainage A Step to the Cities of the Future 218</p>
<p>References 222</p>
<p>V WATER DEMAND AND CONSERVATION 228</p>
<p>V.1 Water Use 228</p>
<p>V.1.1 Water on Earth 228</p>
<p>V.1.2 Water Use Fundamentals 232</p>
<p>V.1.3 Municipal Water Use in the U.S. and Worldwide 235</p>
<p>V.1.4 Components of Municipal Water Use 239</p>
<p>V.1.5 Virtual Water 240</p>
<p>V.2 Water Conservation 241</p>
<p>V.2.1 Definition of Water Conservation 241</p>
<p>V.2.2 Residential Water Use 241</p>
<p>V.2.3 Commercial and Public Water Use and Conservation 249</p>
<p>V.2.4 Leaks and Other Losses 251</p>
<p>V.3 Substitute and Supplemental Water Sources 252</p>
<p>V.3.1 Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) 252</p>
<p>V.3.2 Gray Water Reclamation and Reuse as a Source of New Water 256</p>
<p>V.3.3 Desalination of Seawater and Brackish Water 260</p>
<p>V.3.4 Urban Stormwater and Other Freshwater Flows as Sources of Water 266</p>
<p>References 268</p>
<p>VI WATER RECLAMATION AND REUSE 272</p>
<p>VI.1 Introduction 272</p>
<p>VI.2 Water Reclamation and Reuse 274</p>
<p>VI.2.1 The Concept 274</p>
<p>VI.2.2 Reclaiming Rainwater and Stormwater 279</p>
<p>VI.2.3 Water–Sewage–Water Cycle Unintended Reuse 280</p>
<p>VI.2.4 Centralized versus Decentralized Reclamation 281</p>
<p>VI.2.5 Cluster Water Reclamation Units 282</p>
<p>VI.3 Water Quality Goals and Limits for Selecting Technologies 286</p>
<p>VI.3.1 Concepts 286</p>
<p>VI.3.2 Landscape and Agricultural Irrigation 289</p>
<p>VI.3.3 Urban Uses Other Than Irrigation and Potable Water Supply 293</p>
<p>VI.3.4 Potable Reuse 297</p>
<p>VI.3.5 Groundwater Recharge 300</p>
<p>VI.3.6 Integrated Reclamation and Reuse Singapore 304</p>
<p>References 308</p>
<p>VII TREATMENT AND RESOURCE RECOVERY UNIT PROCESSES 311</p>
<p>VII.1 Brief Description of Traditional Water and Resource Reclamation Technologies 311</p>
<p>VII.1.1 Basic Requirements 311</p>
<p>VII.1.2 Considering Source Separation 312</p>
<p>VII.1.3 Low–Energy Secondary Treatment 315</p>
<p>VII.1.4 New Developments in Biological Treatment 324</p>
<p>VII.2 Sludge Handling and Resource Recovery 329</p>
<p>VII.2.1 Types of Solids Produced in the Water Reclamation Process 331</p>
<p>VII.2.2 A New Look at Residual Solids (Sludge) as a Resource 334</p>
<p>VII.3 Nutrient Recovery 336</p>
<p>VII.4 Membrane Filtration and Reverse Osmosis 339</p>
<p>VII.5 Disinfection 340</p>
<p>VII.6 Energy and GHG Emission Issues in Water Reclamation Plants 346</p>
<p>VII.7 Evaluation and Selection of Decentralized Water Reclamation Technologies 348</p>
<p>VII.7.1 Closed Cycle Water Reclamation 348</p>
<p>References 354</p>
<p>VIII ENERGY AND URBAN WATER SYSTEMS TOWARDS NET ZERO CARBON FOOTPRINT 358</p>
<p>VIII.1 Interconnection of Water and Energy 358</p>
<p>VIII.1.1 Use of Water and Disposal of Used Water Require Energy and Emit GHGs 358</p>
<p>VIII.1.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Urban Areas 360</p>
<p>VIII.1.3 The Water–Energy Nexus on the Regional and Cluster Scale 362</p>
<p>VIII.1.4 Net Zero Carbon Footprint Goal for High–Performance Buildings and Developments 365</p>
<p>VIII.2 Energy Conservation in Buildings and Ecoblocks&nbsp; 71</p>
<p>VIII.2.1 Energy Considerations Related to Water 371</p>
<p>VIII.2.2 Heat Recovery from Used Water 379</p>
<p>VIII.3 Energy from Renewable Sources 380</p>
<p>VIII.3.1 Solar Energy 380</p>
<p>VIII.3.2 Wind Power 387</p>
<p>VIII.4 Energy from Used Water and Waste Organic Solids 392</p>
<p>VIII.4.1 Fundamentals 392</p>
<p>VIII.4.2 Biogas Production, Composition, and Energy Content 394</p>
<p>VIII.4.3 Small and Medium Biogas Production Operations 397</p>
<p>VIII.4.4 Anaerobic Upflow Reactor 398</p>
<p>VIII.5 Direct Electric Energy Production from Biogas and Used Water 399</p>
<p>VIII.5.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells 400</p>
<p>VIII.5.2 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFC) 403</p>
<p>VIII.5.3 Harnessing the Hydraulic Energy of Water Used Water Systems 406</p>
<p>VIII.6 Summary and a Look into the Future 408</p>
<p>VIII.6.1 A New Look at the Used Water Reclamation Processes 408</p>
<p>VIII.6.2 Integrated Resource Recovery Facilities 411</p>
<p>VIII.7 Overall Energy Outlook Anticipating the Future 416</p>
<p>VIII.7.1 A Look into the Future 20 or More Years Ahead 416</p>
<p>VIII.7.2 Is Storage a Problem?&nbsp; 421</p>
<p>References 422</p>
<p>IX RESTORING URBAN STREAMS 427</p>
<p>IX.1 Introduction 427</p>
<p>IX.1.1 Rediscovering Urban Streams 427</p>
<p>IX.1.2 Definitions 437</p>
<p>IX.2 Adverse Impacts of Urbanization to Be Remedied 438</p>
<p>IX.2.1 Types of Pollution 438</p>
<p>IX.2.2 Determining Main Impact Stressors to Be Fixed by Restoration 443</p>
<p>IX.2.3 Effluent Dominated and Effluent Dependent Urban Water Bodies 447</p>
<p>IX.3 Water Body Restoration in the Context of Future Water Centric (Eco) Cities 453</p>
<p>IX.3.1 Goals 453</p>
<p>IX.3.2 Regionalized versus Cluster–Based Distributed Systems 455</p>
<p>IX.3.3 New Developments and Retrofitting Older Cities 457</p>
<p>IX.4 Summary and Conclusions 476</p>
<p>References 479</p>
<p>X PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE FUTURE COMMUNITIES 482</p>
<p>X.1 Integrated Planning and Management 482</p>
<p>X.1.1 Introduction 482</p>
<p>X.1.2 Footprints 484</p>
<p>X.2 Urban Planning 487</p>
<p>X.2.1 Ecocity Parameters and Demographics Population Density Matters 488</p>
<p>X.3 Integrated Resources Management (IRM) 493</p>
<p>X.3.1 Sustainability 493</p>
<p>X.4 Clusters and Ecoblocks Distributed Systems 497</p>
<p>X.4.1 The Need to Decentralize Urban WaterStormwaterUsed Water Management 497</p>
<p>X.4.2 Distribution of Resource Recovery, Reclamation and Management Tasks 499</p>
<p>X.4.3 Cluster Creation and Size 503</p>
<p>X.4.4 Types of WaterEnergy Reclamations and Creation of a Sustainable Urban Area 505</p>
<p>X.5 System Analysis and Modeling of Sustainable Cities 514</p>
<p>X.5.1 Complexity of the System and Modeling 514</p>
<p>X.5.2 Triple Bottom Line (TBL) Assessment 518</p>
<p>X.6 Institutions 525</p>
<p>X.6.1 Institutions for Integrated Resource Management 526</p>
<p>X.6.2 Enhanced Private Sector 532</p>
<p>X.6.3 Achieving Multibenefit System Objectives 533</p>
<p>References 535</p>
<p>XI ECOCITIES: EVALUATION AND SYNTHESIS 539</p>
<p>XI.1 Introduction 539</p>
<p>XI.2 Case Studies 542</p>
<p>XI.2.1 Hammarby Sj&ouml;stad, Sweden 542</p>
<p>XI.2.2 Dongtan, China 549</p>
<p>XI.2.3 Qingdao (China) Ecoblock and Ecocity 556</p>
<p>XI.2.4 Tianjin (China) 560</p>
<p>XI.2.5 Masdar (UAE) 566</p>
<p>XI.2.6 Treasure Island (California, U.S.) 573</p>
<p>XI.2.7 Sonoma Mountain Village (California, U.S.) 579</p>
<p>XI.2.8 Dockside Green 585</p>
<p>XI.3 Brief Summary 588</p>
<p>References 590</p>
<p>APPENDIX 595</p>
<p>INDEX 597</p>